From now on began our more or less settled camp life in the higher mountain valleys of Shih-pao-ch'eng and Sharagolji. The local headman was unable to procure camels before August and those camels which were for sale at his encampment were so unsatisfactory that we decided to spend June and July in the higher mountain valleys and start for Tibet in August. Meanwhile we could study the future route and complete our preparations for the great trek across the uplands of Tibet. We decided to buy our own riding horses, but the animals had to be bought from Chinese villagers, for the local Mongol horses were useless on a trip to Tibet.

The Tibetan horse dealers, who come annually to buy horses from Sining and Kansu, buy only Chinese or Sining bred ponies. These ponies, when well built and good amblers, bring high prices at Lhasa. We therefore decided to send our Tibetan guide to buy horses, mules, and provisions at the Chinese village of Ch'ang-ma.

Our camp on the plateau was found untenable for two reasons; during the rains the surface of the plateau became muddy, and, secondly, during the dry period the frequent northeast winds blew clouds of loess over it, which penetrated the tents and covered the interiors with a thin layer of dust. A few days after our arrival, the local headman invited me to accompany him on a ride around the oasis in order to find a suitable camping ground for our stay and to visit his encampment. The trail which we were following was very swampy and our horses frequently sank deep into the mud.

Shih-pao-ch'eng is a vast oasis, that stretches north of the Tsagan Chuluta. It is a vast depression situated in a gravel plain stretching toward the barren mountain ridges that encompass the plain from south and north, leaving a gap open toward the village Ch'ang-ma, situated west of the plain. The oasis itself is a series of swamps situated along the banks of the river, which is fed by many subsoil springs. The numerous Mongol encampments or ails were situated on patches of firm, dry ground along the banks of the main river channel. In the summer the oasis is covered by fine grazing, which grows on the saline grounds of the river terraces.

The river banks and the numerous swamps are a paradise for aquatic birds. Sea gulls (Chroicocephalus ridibundus), gray geese (Anser anser), turpans (Casarca casarca), a variety of ducks and divers, grebes (Columbus cristatus L.) and a smaller variety of them (Columbus minor L.), snipes, and gray herons enlivened the river banks.

The oasis and the mountain grazing grounds belong to the Kurluk Mongols. Local Mongols and their headman spent winter and early spring in the Oasis of Shih-pao-ch'eng. In June they moved their camps to the higher alpine valley of Sharagolji situated south of the Khash-kar-in Pass. The headman, Machen, lived in three dirty felt tents, pitched on a patch of dry firm ground close to the river. His family were just as dirty as their tents and increased the general impression of untidiness. On our arrival a number of boys rushed out of the tents and took our horses. We entered the larger tent, preceded by the wife of the headman. Nearly all of the occupants wore heavy sheepskin coats, thrown aside to the waist, leaving the upper part of the body bare. Some had green or white shirts under the sheepskin coat, but most had none. The head of the family seated himself on a pile of sheepskins and invited me to sit on a low mattress. The rest of the family squatted on the floor. Near a small wooden altar with several crude brass images of Buddha Sakyamuni, Tara, and Tsong-kha-pa, the Tibetan reformer, sat a lama from Amdo, wearing huge Chinese spectacles that covered most of his forehead and he recited prayers out of a book, which he was holding on his knees. We were served with cheese and äräki, a kind of strong drink prepared with milk.

After an hour's conversation, we settled the question of camels for the future caravan. The headman agreed to hire his camels as far as Nag-chu, the first Tibetan village on the northern caravan route. He told me that they had received disquieting news from Teijiner in southern Tsaidam, where bands of armed Goloks or Panags had attacked and plundered the Mongol encampments in the valley of the Neiji River. He insisted on the necessity of having with the caravan a large detachment of men-at-arms and proposed to supply them. He also informed me that since last year, his Prince had received a request from Lhasa not to allow any European travelers to proceed there. This order had nothing to do with us, for we were in possession of Tibetan passports and letters of introduction and were even accompanied by a Tibetan government servant, deputed by the Tibetan representative in Urga, to escort the expedition to Tibet.

Having settled all the questions concerning our future trip to Nag-chu, I rode off to look for a suitable camping ground. The best places for camps were already occupied by Mongol ails. We found a spacious river terrace, with firm, dry ground, on which we could easily pitch our camp. We moved on the next day. It was somewhat difficult to find a sufficient number of pack animals to transport the expedition's baggage. The Chinese farmers had a small oxcart, which they placed at our disposal for the day. The cart had to make several trips to convey all the heavy baggage. The headman Machen sent us his ten camels, all the other camels being far in the mountains. The rest of the baggage was carried over by riders. As soon as we were established in our new camp, we sent our Tibetan guide with a Mongol to Ch'ang-ma to buy horses and mules.

Apart from exploring the oasis, each one of us had much to do in his respective field. Professor Roerich continued his artistic work. Mrs. Roerich and her two assistants were sorting the expedition's baggage and making lists of supplies for the future crossing of Tibet. Our doctor besides responding to requests for medical aid, explored the oasis, its fauna and flora. Portniagin was always busy with transport questions, saddlery and the odds and ends that occupy so much time in camp life. I was studying the local Mongols, their language and customs, besides inquiring about our future route across the swamps of Tsaidam and the uplands of Tibet.

It so happened that the Mongol tribes of Tsaidam were never before studied linguistically. Scant information about their dialect could be obtained from accounts by previous travelers and from the linguistic works on the Mongol dialects by Dr. A. D. Rudnev and G. Tsybikoff.

One evening we suddenly saw our Tibetan guide riding toward the camp on a fine black horse and driving before him a big drove of horses and mules. The animals were a welcome addition to our caravan. The Tibetan acquitted himself well of his task and brought back a fine stud of animals, many of which reached Darjeeling in India, after a long and trying winter on the Tibetan upland.

Portniagin soon left us for a trip to Ch'ang-ma and Su-chou in the Kansu Province. Besides the buying of provisions he was intrusted with the sending and receiving of cables from America. He remained absent for fully two weeks and returned with a pair of fine horses, only to be sent again to Ch'ang-ma to buy pack mules for the expedition. We had decided to have a mule detachment in our caravan to transport the camping outfit.

Shih-pao-ch'eng, notwithstanding its altitude, was growing unpleasantly hot and we inquired of the local headman, whether conditions were better in the higher valleys of Sharagolji, where lay the summer pastures of the local Mongols. According to him there was no rainfall in the higher valleys and grass was scant. He advised us to wait for another two weeks. The question of supplies continued to cause us considerable anxiety. Many of the districts in the Kansu Province were hunger stricken, as the result of recent upheavals and the continuous movements of troops. The An-hsi authorities had issued orders forbidding the sale of flour and rice, without an authorization by local authorities. It became difficult to find sufficient supplies of flour for the expedition. The local Chinese merchants were charging exorbitant prices and the only way to get supplies of flour for our stay in Tsaidam and the journey to Nag-chu was to send one of our men to buy it in Ch'ang-ma. We accordingly sent our Tibetan guide, who had a good knowledge of Chinese, to buy all the available quantity, which he did and returned a week later with a considerable supply of barley flour.

On the 15th of June the local headman came to tell us that the conditions in Sharagolji Valley were favorable and that he advised us to move our camp there. We fixed the date of departure for the 18th of June.

On that day everything in camp was ready for the departure but no camels appeared until three o'clock in the afternoon. We inquired from the headman about the cause of the delay but he gave an evasive answer, that the camels had not all arrived. It was getting late and still all of the camels were not there, although thirty had come in by this time. About five o'clock the Mongols informed us that we had to move and started loading the thirty camels. They managed to load everything on these thirty animals. Their object was apparently to receive payment for forty-two camels as was agreed upon and to supply only thirty. We did not go far this day, and halted after an hour's ride in a broad ravine with a tiny stream. We protested to the headman and told him that we needed the remaining twelve camels. He got terribly excited and threatened to throw down our loads. We warned him that unless he agreed to supply immediately the twelve remaining camels, we would have to inform his ruling Prince of his conduct. This threat had the desired effect, for on the next day we obtained our forty-two camels.

The next day's march was somewhat longer and took us over a gravel plain north of the Khashkar-in ula. We started late in the afternoon when the atmosphere had cooled off a little and reached our stage about eleven o'clock at night.

On the next day we sent our caravan ahead of us and remained with one tent until late in the afternoon, in order to make the march during the cool of the evening. The place bore the name of Khashkar-in ama and was distinguished by a crude stone throne erected in honor of the Dalai Lama during his flight in 1904. There was no water supply on the stage; so we had to take water with us from Shih-pao-ch'eng and carry it in large tins. At about four o'clock we left camp and entered a narrow gorge, leading into the heart of the mountains. The small stream that flowed through the gorge was still frozen hard, and in many places we crossed it over bridges of ice. After three miles, the trail left the stream and turned southwest toward the Urtu-Khashkar-in daban. We halted for the night at the foot of the pass, on the banks of a frozen brook. It was strange to see snow and ice in the middle of June.

Next day we were unable to continue our journey. Mrs. Roerich felt indisposed and we decided to remain in camp. The heavy baggage was sent ahead on camels with orders to await us on the southern side of the pass. Only ten camels were left to transport the camping outfit. The day was sunny but cold, with a steady and freezing northeast wind. The Mongols and Tibetans maintained that the Khashkar-in daban was bad for men and animals, that men often perished on the pass from "earth poison" or sa-du (sa-gdug). According to them the only way to save one's self was to chew garlic during the crossing of the pass or to smoke strong Chinese tobacco continuously. Lamas, who never smoked in ordinary life, would smoke during the ascent and did not think it sinful. Some of our Mongols complained of headache. I think that the steady icy wind, that penetrated the narrow gorge from the northeast, intensified the rarity of the air and caused headache, which was regarded by the Mongols to be a sign that the person was affected by the "earth poison."

During the day I made a brief excursion up the mountain valley in the direction of the pass. The slopes of the mountain were covered with turf and the hares (Lepus tolai) were very numerous. A little farther up from our camp the valley branched; one way led directly to the pass, the other struck south and was sheltered by high mountains. In the upper part of this second valley lay another pass, difficult of access and therefore only seldom used.

On June 22, Mrs. Roerich having completely recovered, we ascended the pass on a beautifully clear morning. The ascent was very steep but presented no danger in summer months. During the winter, when the whole of the northern slope is one gigantic block of ice, there are a great number of accidents and many camels perish while descending the pass. From the top of the pass, marked by the usual obo or stone cairn, we obtained a fine view of the surrounding mountain panorama. To the east rose a mighty snow-capped mountain, the Tsagan Burgusun, on which there were said to be many wild yaks. Because of the late spring, the small rodents were only now leaving their holes and we saw a great many of these animals during our descent into the large plain, through which flowed the Ye-ma ho. The river flowed in a narrow stone bed and had very little water. We camped on its banks close to our camel caravan with the heavy baggage. Across the camp on the farther bank of the river rose the three-peaked mountain of Gurbun-daban or "The Three Mountain Passes." South of the river rose the snow-clad mountains beyond the valley of Sharagolji. These were the Humboldt Mountains of Prjevalski which bear the native name of Doyugu. It appears that the natives designate the Humboldt Mountains by different names. The western part of the range was known under the semi-Mongol-semi-Chinese name of Doyugu, the eastern was called by some of the natives Hung-ho Shan, by others Hungu ula. This latter name was given to the range, because of numerous river gorges of red sandstone. We had to stay another full day in the valley of the Ye-ma ho because of Mrs. Roerich's health, which had been delicate for the past few days.

The night was bitterly cold and water froze inside the tents. During the day we made a brief excursion into the valley of the river, which rose in the Gurbun-daban Mountains and flowed toward the northeast. In June the volume of water carried by the river was insignificant. It was said to increase considerably in the rainy period, that is in July and August. The day before our departure, the water in the river suddenly became muddy—a sign of a snow or rainfall in the mountains. We observed wild asses or kyangs and flocks of turpans on the river banks. A hunting party was organized and after a two hours' absence from the camp returned with two fine kyangs. The meat of the animals was surprisingly palatable and from then on often appeared on our table.

Our cameleers were an interesting crowd of colorfully dressed men. They all were armed. Most of them had Berdane rifles of 1887 or German Mausers of 1891; one even had a British-made Martini rifle, which he had bought in Tibet.

Next day we were again able to move on toward Sharagolji. The trail crossed the Ye-ma ho and then led across a vast sandy plateau, that imperceptibly rose toward the south. All around the plateau were barren ridges and we wondered where the local Mongols grazed their herds of horses and cattle. After ten miles, we reached the highest point of the plateau, marked by a stone cairn. From here a gradual descent led into the valley of Shara-gol. The valley itself was still hidden by a rugged ridge known by the name of Ikhe ula or the "Big Mountain." We crossed it through a broad gorge, blocked by huge accumulations of talus and bowlders.

Toward two o'clock in the afternoon we reached the latitudinal valley of Shara-gol, situated at an altitude of some 9,000 feet. It was almost impossible to find dry firm ground for our camp, for most of the valley was covered by swamps and quicksands. We intended to cross the river, but a Chinese trader who was camping in the valley, warned us that the river was flooded and that he had been unable to cross the day before. We had to camp temporarily on a patch of saline ground. It was evident that it would be impossible to remain on the spot for a long period, because of mosquitoes and the dampness of the ground.

Next day I rode off to reconnoiter a new place for our camp. The river proved to be flooded and my men and I had difficulties in finding fording places. At the foot of the mountain south of the river we found a gravel-covered plateau and a tiny brook of fresh mountain water, known to local Mongols by the name of Dachin, a Mongol corruption of the Chinese expression Ta-ch'ing, or the "Big Spring." We returned to our camp in the afternoon, having made a long detour in the valley, and having crossed the river at least eight times. We persuaded our cameleers to move our baggage to the new spot. While crossing the river again, we had an accident with the horse of our Tibetan guide, which sank deep into sand and was rescued with great difficulty.

In this camp we had to spend six weeks waiting for the beginning of the camel caravan season. Portniagin, who had returned from Ch'ang-ma with twenty mules for our caravan, left again for Mahai in Tsaidam to buy camels for the journey to Tibet. I shall not describe the life of our camp day by day. Most of the days were spent in excursions in the neighboring mountains. The Hungu Mountains were famous for gold diggings carried on by Chinese peasants, who came every summer to spend a couple of months in the river gorges of the mountains, washing the auriferous sand. During their stay they lived in caves, excavated in the flanks of the mountains, and carefully avoided contact with local Mongols, who viewed with suspicion the activities of the gold diggers.

To commemorate the spot of our camp, Professor Roerich decided to build a stupa and our Mongols busied themselves preparing stones and bricks for the construction. Soon the stately white structure of the stupa rose among our tents.

Portniagin brought back from Mahai a herd of forty-two splendid camels which were left to graze for a month in the mountains of Sharagolji, the departure for Tibet being fixed for August 19.

On JULY 28 we were unexpectedly joined by Colonel N. V. Kordashevski, who had been traveling from Peking through the Gobi and was considerably delayed by unsettled conditions in China. News had reached us that he was on his way to join us, but all inquiries failed to ascertain his whereabouts. Now he arrived and related the experiences of his long and dangerous march across the Gobi and Kansu.

In the evening of the same day our camp was almost carried away by a terrific flood. Several days before, we heard a strange noise in the mountains and local Mongols told us that heavy rains were falling in the mountains. In the evening of the 28th the noise suddenly became louder and before we were able to realize what was happening, the tiny brook was transformed into a mighty stream and rushed through our camp carrying with it tents and camp furniture. We were all sitting in Mrs. Roerich's tent, talking to Colonel Kordashevski, when suddenly we heard the loud shouts of the doctor; "Water, water!" The cry was followed by a terrible crash, as if a thunderstorm had struck the camp. We all rushed outside and saw our kitchen tent, dining tent, and my own tent, carried away by a flood that in a few minutes had excavated a deep and broad channel. We all rushed to the rescue of our tents, and spent about two hours waist deep in the water, fighting the rushing stream. Thanks to the untiring zeal of the expedition personnel, most of the baggage and all three tents were saved. Many minor objects were carried down the stream and buried deep in sand.

After three hours the water suddenly subsided and the brook became again a small stream of muddy water. But the landscape had changed completely. The patches of green grass in front of our camp, on which we grazed our horses and mules, were covered by a thick layer of sand. The stream had excavated a deep channel in the sand slope and lakes were formed in the valley. The river Shara-gol had flooded the valley and carried away many Mongol encampments, cattle, and sheep. The Mongols assured us that they did not remember another flood of such violence and many had lost all they possessed.

On AUGUST 7 our camp was visited by the Head Lama or shiretu of Tsaidam. He arrived at Sharagolji accompanied by local notables and an envoy from the Prince of Kurluk who was eager to make our acquaintance. He brought a letter from his Prince, in which the local ruler offered us his assistance and his camels for our trip to Tibet. We thanked the Prince for his courtesy and informed him that we had already bought our own camels.

On the 9th of AUGUST the expedition camp was unexpectedly visited by a Chinese official from Sining who announced the arrival at Sharagolji of an official from Sining with a big escort. On the next day we saw a group of riders approaching our camp. Local Mongols had informed us that the t'ung-shih or official from Sining intended to exact from us a large sum of money and that if we refused to pay, he would attempt to stop our expedition by force. This was apparently the result of false information given to the officials by some of our discharged servants. Everything in camp was put on a martial basis. We decided to give permission to enter the camp only to the official himself; his men would have to wait outside the camp. For this purpose several of our armed men and myself were ordered to occupy a position outside the camp and stop the official and his detachment. Our expedition flag was displayed at Professor Roerich's tent and Portniagin mounted guard by it with rifle and fixed bayonet. Professor Roerich and the rest of the expedition members were assembled in our dining tent, where negotiations with the Sining official were to be carried on. The rest of the expedition personnel received orders to stay under arms and to move continuously about the camp to give the impression of the presence of a large body of armed men.

On the arrival, the t'ung-shih and his escort were politely but firmly told that they must dismount from their horses and that the soldiers must wait outside the camp, guarded by several of our armed men. The official and his men were greatly staggered by our firm attitude and submitted to our demands. The soldiers remained outside and the t'ung-shih, accompanied by me, proceeded to our camp, where he was met by Professor Roerich and the rest of the expedition members. He was offered a seat in the tent, facing the open entrance, which enabled him to see what was taking place outside. Every time he looked through the entrance a band of our men would march or ride past. The movement of armed men was kept up all during the visit of the Sining official. He got an impression that we had at least two hundred men under our command and whispered to his aid that we were too strong.

He examined our passports and found them correct. During the lengthy negotiation that followed, the t'ung-shih inquired about our future route and finally delivered to us a certificate, permitting us to carry our baggage through territory belonging to the Governor of Sining.

The southern border of the Sining or Ch'ing-hai district was at Jyekundo in Tibet and the t'ung-shih assured us that his certificate would help us as far as Jyekundo. We had to pay a small sum as tax on our camels and the t'ung-shih left our camp, assuring us of his best intentions. It is interesting to mention here how rumors grow in central Asia. This episode with the t'ung-shih from Sining assumed the shape of a story in which it was told that a Chinese army had come to Sharagolji to invade our camp and that the phyi-lings or foreigners resisted all Chinese attacks and inflicted heavy losses on the attacking troops. A friendly Chinese trader had heard that story in Mahai, a place five days distant from Sharagolji.

A few days before our departure a strange occurrence caused considerable excitement among the Mongol personnel of the expedition. It was a beautiful evening and the broad valley of Shara-gol was plunged into the deep violet mist of the setting sun. The summits of the jagged mountain wall on the farther side of the river shone brilliantly in sharp contrast to the dark shades of the valley. It was a typical sunset picture of central Asian highlands, which never fails to strike the traveler with the richness of its color. The sandy plain in front of the expedition camp lay deserted and the Mongol herds had moved toward their encampments. Suddenly a horseman appeared in the distance. He rode fast and his mount, a fine type of Mongol horse, showed signs of fatigue. He was evidently coming from afar. He rushed into the camp and requested to be allowed to speak to the leader of the expedition in a closed tent. Questioned by the sentry on duty, he refused to give his name, and the object of his mission. The mysterious stranger was a young man, dressed in a gorgeous silk and golden brocaded costume. Never again did we see a man so splendidly attired. He seemed to have stepped out of an ancient Tibetan painting of royal donors presenting their offerings to Buddha, the Lion among Men. One has to be careful in inner Asia nowadays. The man might have been a leader of a brigand band, who came to spy on the forces of the expedition. Local bandits are known to use tactics like this. We decided, however, to give him a chance to speak to the leader and led him to the tent.

As soon as he entered the tent, he began to talk rapidly and seemed greatly depressed. According to him, the route ahead of us was full of danger, and seventy well-armed horsemen stood ready to attack the expedition in the mountains, south of the Tsaidam swamps. "Up to the Elisu-daban, the route is open to you," said the man, "but on the pass lurks danger," and he shook his head worriedly. He was certain that few of us would escape peril. Then he was gone before we knew it. The sudden appearance of the mysterious stranger caused considerable stir among our Mongols, but no one knew who he was and whence he had come. If true, his warning was a very serious one and we should have to take all precautions.

The last few days before our departure were crowded with innumerable details that must be attended to. We had engaged new servants and the men must be trained in camp service. Our guard was also increased in view of the disquieting reports from the Sino-Tibetan border, where tribes were said to be at war. Our horses and camels were in fine shape after several weeks of good grazing and complete rest.

On AUGUST 18 the leader of the expedition made a final inspection of our loads and caravan animals and the departure was ordered for six o'clock on the next morning.

On the northeast of Tibet lies a vast stretch of country for the most part covered by desert. This desolate region, intensely hot in summer and as cold in winter, bears the Tibetan name of Tsha-dam, that is "salt marsh," better known in its Mongol form Tsaidam. This dreaded salt marsh stretches for more than 200 miles from west to east, with an average elevation of 8,000 feet, forsaken by animal life, a land of unapproachable salt lakes and bottomless salt pits, engirdled by quicksands and ridges of sand dunes. On the west it borders upon an elevated desert plateau called by local nomads Serthang. On the east it gradually rises toward the higher plateaus of Koko-nor. Toward the north and south barren and wind-eroded mountain ridges form its natural boundaries. To the north is a succession of mighty mountain ranges belonging to the Nan Shan Mountain system, to the south a mountain country gradually rising toward the great highlands of northern Tibet.

Scanty vegetation exists in the river valleys. The rest of the region, the mountain slopes and the vast loess and gravel-covered plains, are characterized by desert flora common to the central Gobi. This uninviting country with scanty pasture grounds, is inhabited by Mongol tribes, the Khoshuts, who swept over the region in the beginning of the seventeenth century A.D. when the intrepid Bogdo Gushi Khan (a Mongol rendering of the Chinese title kuo-shih) carried his arms to the Koko-nor and to Lhasa and deprived the last king of Tsang of his throne, thus establishing the hieratic rule in Tibet.

About the beginning of the seventeenth century A.D. the great confederacy of Oirat tribes split into several sections and left the pasture lands of Jungaria, north of the T'ien Shan Mountains. A part of them under the leadership of Kho-orlok moved westward. Another Oirat tribe, the Khoshuts, having as their leader Turu-baihu, son of Noyan-Khonkhor, moved southeastward and conquered in 1637 the region around Koko-nor. This Turu-baihu was the famous Gushi Khan, the upholder of the Yellow Faith in Tibet. From that time, the Mongol tribes that accompanied him on his march settled in the newly conquered territories.

Administratively the whole of Tsaidam forms a part of the Koko-nor District or Ch'ing-hai, which according to the Chinese work on Mongol tribes consists of twenty-one Khoshut banners, each banner ruled by a native chief. Tsaidam proper is divided into five principalities, or nutuk, popularly called Tabun Tsaidam, "The Five Tsaidams": Kuket-beise, Kurluk-beise, Barun dzassak, Dzun dzassak and Teijiner. Each nutuk is governed by a prince or a dzassak elected from among the nobles of the tribe, except the Teijiner principality, which is governed since 1725 by an elected body of thirty-three nobles or teiji (Chinese t'ai-chih). During the Manchu imperial rule, the Ch'ing-hai was governed by a special Frontier Commissioner, who had his official residence at Sining. In the summer of 1915, President Yuan-shih k'ai, handed over the administration of the Ch'ing-hai or Koko-nor to the Mohammedan General of Sining, who still retains his authority over the large district.

The Chinese rule in this outlying dependency is rather nominal, for no Chinese officials reside in Tsaidam or the surrounding region during the year and the Province is only visited in summer by a t'ung-shih or interpreter from Sining, who is supposed to collect the annual tax, and decide disputes between the different tribes. Serious offenses, such as murder, are referred for decision to Sining. In reality even this exercise of authority is a mere show, a remnant of Chinese imperial policy of bygone days. These t'ung-shih from Sining, notwithstanding the official authority vested in them, are very often badly handled by Mongol tribesmen, who object to excessive tax payment. The Mohammedan General of Sining usually leaves the situation as it is, for he does not have sufficient power to reëstablish his authority.

In 1926 a t'ung-shih from Sining, who paid his annual visit to the Kurluk Mongols of Sharagolji, was roughly handled. The local Mongol headman or dzangin ordered him to leave the place and refused to make payment. A correspondence ensued between the Sining authorities and the Kurluk Prince, and sharp words were exchanged with the only result, that the Chinese had to accept the actual semi-independent state of the Tsaidam tribes.

Living in close proximity to the Tibetan tribes of the mountains, the Mongols adopted many of their customs, their costume and sometimes even their language. The true Mongol type of strong physique is found among the Khoshut Mongols of Kurluk, who preserved to a greater extent their native tongue and customs. On the south of the great salt marsh of Tsaidam, in the Teijiner district, there is a type of Mongol of slight build and more delicate features—a mixed race of Amdo-was, Panags, and Khoshuts. To the east of Tsaidam, in the country round Koko-nor, the Khoshut Mongols are gradually being overpowered by the more virile races of Goloks and Panags, who are the indisputable masters of the mountain country south of the Koko-nor. This continuous pressure exercised by the warlike Tibetan tribes, their summer raids and the frequent punitive expeditions undertaken by the Mongols into the neighboring mountains, deeply affected the character of the Mongols and made a lasting imprint on the spiritual and everyday life of the nomads. Attired in his semi-Mongol-semi-Tibetan costume trimmed with fur, with the pointed hat of the Panags or the Tibetan turban, with Tibetan sword and magazine rifle of a foreign make, the Tsaidam Mongol guards his cattle under the ever present danger of a robber raid by Tibetan nomads. The passes leading across the mountains south of Tsaidam have to be continuously watched and the tribal organization provides for militia patrols to scout the slopes of the mountains and the gorges.

Approaching the danger zone, which stretches all along the southern border of the great salt marsh, where tribal warfare never ends, where men sleep expecting constantly the shrill resounding outcry of the Tibetan hillmen, one feels one's self to be in an atmosphere of imminent danger. Everything indicates the constant readiness of the nomads to protect their camps—fettered horses, armed herdsmen, and patrols scouting the approaches of the mountains.

The Kurluk Khoshuts are the most numerous and prosperous of all the five tribes of Tsaidam. They hold most of the grazing lands in the higher valleys of the Nan Shan, and the fine pastures round the salt lakes of Ikhe-Tsaidam, Baga Tsaidam and Kurluk-nor. Toward the northwest the Kurluk Mongols occupy vast patches of land on the desert plateau of Serthang. A scanty nomad population is found in the higher river valleys of Shara-gol, Ikhe Khaltin-gol, Baga Khaltin and Ichigi-yin-gol. On the north the Kurluk nomad lands border upon the districts of Sha-chou, An-hsi and Su-chou. The boundary line between the district under direct control of An-hsi and the Mongol tribal land passes just north of Shih-pao-ch'eng, an oasis where the first Khoshut Mongols are found.

On the east the Khoshut territory borders upon the grazing grounds of the Kuket Khoshuts. To the south of Kurluk lies the great salt marsh of Tsaidam proper, often called by the native shala which in Mongol means "dead desert, a plain unsuitable for cattle-breeding." South of the swamps lie the grazing grounds of the Teijiner Mongols.

These Kurluk Mongols are ruled by a hereditary Prince with the Chinese title of the fourth grade of beise (Chinese: pei-tzu). The headquarters of the Prince are situated near the Lake Kurluk-nor. The whole of the territory ruled by the Prince is divided into a number of sumun territories, each governed by an appointed headman or dzangin. According to the Mongols themselves, they number about 1,000 families and the greater part of their population is concentrated around the lakes of the Tsaidam, Baga-Tsaidam, the Kurluk-nor and the important Oasis of Mahai (Chinese: Ma-hai, "hemp sandals").

The Kurluk Mongols have to pay to their Prince an annual tax of ten Mexican dollars per tent, and supply the necessary contingents for the tribal militia. Besides this, they have to supply riding and pack animals to all the state officials and other persons authorized to use animals on relay stations. The people are not allowed to pay their annual tax in cattle, and this is a source of great difficulties for the nomads who are always short of silver. In order to realize some money, they have to sell horses, camels, and sheep at very low prices. The Chinese traders, who usually visit the country during the summer, are well aware of this urgent need of silver and make huge profits by buying cattle and products of the nomad households at ridiculously low prices. The Mongols understand their hopeless position very well and this makes them hate their Chinese rulers. This squeezing of the country of all its natural products attained tremendous proportions in outer Mongolia and was one of the chief causes of the Mongol revolt of 1911 following the proclamation of the Chinese Republic.

The second obligation toward their Prince, is the military service for all men capable of carrying arms. The Prince of Kurluk maintains a mounted militia for the protection of the tribal territory. All men physically fit, from the age of sixteen to sixty, laymen and lamas, form the standing reserve of the tribal militia. Every year a certain number of men are called out to serve with the active force of the militia. The men have to bring their own horses, arms, and ammunition. The armament of a militia trooper consists of a rifle, a sword of Tibetan pattern, and a long spear. The upheavals of the last years in China and Chinese central Asia threw a tremendous amount of firearms of every description on the Chinese market and the nomads of the border were not slow to take advantage of this opportunity to arm themselves. Nowadays a matchlock with a firing range of some hundred meters is already a rarity among the Tsaidam Mongols. Most of the men carry magazine rifles of Russian, German, or Japanese make, Russian single-loaded rifles, and Austrian Mannlicher carbines. The improvement in armament resulted in an increased number of casualties in tribal feuds.

The hillmen of northeastern Tibet became a much more formidable foe and the troops of the Mohammedan General of Sining have a very hard time on the border in keeping the always turbulent tribes from raiding the cultivated areas south of Sining. Ammunition is still very scarce among Tsaidam Mongols and good rifle ammunition of foreign make is highly valued and big prices are offered. Most of the ammunition is Chinese-made and is very unsatisfactory.

The Prince is considered to be the chief commanding officer of the tribal militia and is styled Tserig-in Jan-jun. The whole force is divided into squadrons or sumun, commanded by local headmen—dzangins. In the exercise of their military authority, each headman is assisted by a militia chief, who is in direct control of the men. The militia receives no military training whatsoever. There is an annual muster of the militia in July, when prizes are given for the best horsemanship and marksmanship. Each squadron has a standard or flag, a red triangle, fixed at its base to a long staff.

During the stay of the expedition at Sharagolji we witnessed on JULY 10, 1927, the annual summer muster of the local militia, consisting of thirty mounted men. The ceremony began with the erection of a huge stone cairn on the top of a hill. After this the men of the mounted militia went through a series of exercises consisting of target practice, both mounted and unmounted, and horse races. The marksmanship was in general of a very high standard for most of the men were experienced hunters. The horsemanship was inferior, for most of the horses were badly trained and badly fed. The day was finished by a festival at the tent of the local headman and, as in all Mongol festivities, there was much drinking.

This mounted militia has almost no military value, unless trained by European instructors. It is essentially a territorial force and it is doubtful if the Mohammedan General in Sining ever succeeded in drafting Mongol mounted contingents into his forces. The strength of the Kurluk militia, when fully mobilized, amounts to about 500 men, although it is improbable that such a number could ever be put in the field.

The Kurluk Mongols, as all the Tsaidam Mongols, are essentially a cattle-breeding tribe. Cattle is the chief article of export and quantities of horses, camels, and sheep are annually sold to the Chinese traders. The Tsaidam horse is usually a well-built animal of about twelve hands and his only serious defect lies in its fragile hoofs. The animal is bred on the soft saline ground of Tsaidam and is quite unsuitable for long marches on hard, stony grounds. For this reason all travelers to Tibet try to get Tangut horses or Sining ponies, a hardy breed, invaluable on long distances. The horses coming from Serthang are better adapted for stony roads. The Tsaidam camel in comparison to the north Mongolian camel is of a slight build and its carrying capacity is much smaller when compared with that of the northern camel. The animal has the great advantage of standing the rarefied air of the mountains well, and is therefore employed for carrying merchandise on the northern trade route to Tibet. Especially fine are the camels from the mountain districts of Ch'ing-hai. A Tsaidam camel crossed the whole of Tibet with the Roerich Expedition and safely reached Gangtok in Sikkim after ten months of exceptional hardships.

Sheep are numerous but much inferior to those of Mongolia. Camel and sheep wool are the most important articles of export. Great quantities of wool are bought yearly by European firms in Tientsin. They have their representatives in the chief trading centers of Kansu and even visit the Mongol encampments in Tsaidam during the summer months. The Chinese make big profits in the wool trade, acting as mediators between the European firms of Tientsin and the Mongol nomads. For each pound of camel wool, the Chinese trader pays the Mongols one pound of poorly ground flour, whereas the cost of one pound of camel wool in outer Mongolia is seventy cents.

A small trade is carried on in furs and the borax which is found in the Kurluk territory. The chief fur market for the whole of Tsaidam is Sining, and the amount of furs sold annually on the markets of An-hsi and Su-chou is insignificant. The best furs come from the mountain district south of the Koko-nor. Wolf, bear, lynx, fox, and leopard are commonly seen on the markets.

The chief trading centers for the Kurluk Mongols are An-hsi, Su-chou and Sha-chou. The big fair held annually in the autumn near the great monastery of Kumbum attracts many hundreds of pilgrims and traders from Tsaidam.

The Mongols seldom visit An-hsi or Su-chou; most of the trade is carried on by Chinese traders, who visit the Mongol territory in summer. The chief articles of commerce are flour, rice, Chinese- and European-made candles, metal wares, cheap cloth, and Chinese silks, seldom of very good quality. A clandestine trade in firearms and ammunition is also carried on. Chinese traders employ in the Tsaidam region the same methods of exploitation as were used by the big Chinese firms in outer Mongolia prior to Mongolian independence. This exploitation in Tsaidam is on a smaller scale, for there are no big firms in the field. Their favorite method is to keep the Mongol population perpetually indebted, and receive the annual interest in cattle price at an extremely low rate. Whenever their Mongol customers propose to make payment, they try their best to postpone the payment of the debt and continue to collect the interest in cattle, which they sell on the big cattle markets of Kansu. Each bargain ends in drunkenness, the drunken Mongol wallows on the floor of the tent, and the Chinese counts the profits of his lucrative trade. Sometimes fate turns against them and infuriated Mongols burn their tents with all the merchandise, but such storms very seldom happen, for the Chinese traders proceed with their business very cleverly, adopting the costume and habits of the Mongols, making offerings to lamaseries and continuously telling their beads. They usually pay a small interest for their trade to the local headman and thus secure his protection.

Cultivation of land is practiced on a very limited scale by Chinese laborers, who lease land from the Mongols, and by Mongols themselves round the Lake Kurluk-nor. These Mongols lease the land from the Prince and have to pay him a certain sum each year, which they present personally during the annual meeting of headmen at the headquarters of the Prince. Cultivation on a larger scale is found among the Teijiner Mongols, because the place is rather far from the big agricultural districts of Kansu. The chief agricultural produce for Tsaidam is barley.

A favorite occupation with the Mongols of Kurluk is hunting. They hunt the kyang, which is common on the gravel slopes of the mountain ridges, and wolves, bears, foxes, and Mongolian antelopes.

Some of the headmen and wealthy Mongols who possess large herds of camels hire their animals to traders and pilgrims going to Lhasa or Kumbum. The Mongol pilgrims coming from An-hsi, have to cross the Kurluk territory and make a prolonged stay, waiting for the big Mongol caravan that usually starts for Tibet in October. The caravan season begins in September, when the camels are at their best. For the past years the number of pilgrims from Mongolia have greatly diminished and the routes to Tibet are almost completely deserted.

The Kurluk Mongols live in Mongol felt tents which are generally somewhat smaller than those of the Khalkha Mongols, which are covered with felt of a much inferior quality. The interior of such tents usually consists of heaps of old household rubbish piled all along the walls. Near the wall opposite the entrance stands a kind of altar with offering lamps burning day and night before the images. The images are almost hidden under ceremonial scarfs or khatag which hang from their shoulders. In the tents of rich Mongols one sometimes finds copies of the Känjür and Tänjür, usually of the Derge print, which is far superior to that of Narthang in Tibet proper. The images usually come from Derge, or the Wu-t'ai Shan in Shan-hsi. Some of them are of very high craftsmanship.

A pile of dirty sheepskins serves for the bed of the whole family. The rich sometimes have Tibetan or Ning-hsia square carpets spread on the ground. Near the door one usually finds the kitchen utensils of the family, churns for making butter-tea, and riding and pack saddles. Occasionally one sees newborn lambs sharing quarters with their owners. Long poles are erected outside with prayer flags or lung-ta for the welfare of the family.

The Kurluk Mongols belong to the Yellow Hat sect (Gelük-pa) of Lamaism and each autumn go for a pilgrimage to the great Monastery of Kumbum, the birthplace of Tsong-kha-pa, the founder of the Yellow Hat sect in Tibet. The Monastery attracts them both as a great religious center and as the place of a great annual fair. The lamas are quite numerous among the Kurluk Mongols and are distinguished by their shaven heads. The laymen wear the pigtail. Contrary to the rules of the Lamaist church, they are all married and live with their families. Most of the celibate lamas go to Kumbum or to one of the several nomadic monasteries in the region. These monasteries usually have no permanent temple and the services are held in ordinary Mongol felt tents. Quite recently the monastery near the headquarters of the Prince at Kurluk-nor began the building of a new du-khang or assembly hall and subscriptions were collected from all the sumuns. These subscriptions were collected by the chief lama of Kurluk, who holds the appointment of spiritual advisor to the Prince. He is generally known under the title of shiretu or shire lama, that is "abbot." The Mongols usually pay him in cattle, offering horses, sheep, and camels. His tour ended, the abbot returns to his monastery and leaves behind a retainer to collect the money and look after the cattle presented to the monastery.

The Tsaidam Mongols, generally speaking, erect permanent structures. At the Oasis of Mahai, Ikhe-Tsaidam, and the headquarters of the Prince near the Kurluk-nor, are found brick structures of the usual Chinese style, which serve as storehouses for the communities. Some of the wealthy nobles erect houses or baishin for themselves but they never stay in them and continue to live in tents pitched inside the courtyard of the house. The house, usually a very miserable structure, merely shows that the owner adopted the Chinese way of living.

The national attire of the Tsaidam Mongols compares favorably with the national costume of other Mongol tribes. There is something dignified about a Mongol walking or riding his horse, something that reminds one of our own Middle Ages. The costume consists of a shirt with a turned down collar. The shirt is red, blue, or yellow, but rarely white. The collar and the sleeves are trimmed with fur. The trousers are broad, blue or brown, of the common Sino-Mongolian style. A large, heavy coat trimmed with leopard fur or lynx is usually worn. In summer it is a light coat called kemelik, in winter a fur-lined one. Blue and red seem to be favorite colors. Mongol leather boots and numerous heavy charm boxes or ga-u complete the attire. The headdress consists of a small white felt hat with brim turned upward and edged with a narrow strip of silk brocade. Long Tibetan swords and daggers of Derge make, richly inlaid with coral and turquoise are always carried by the men. A Tsaidam Mongol is very fond of arms. When entering the tent of a friend, the arms are always left behind at the entrance.

One seldom meets good craftsmen among them. All the work is usually done by Chinese or Amdo craftsmen who live among the Mongols. The women, who do most of the domestic work and help the men to look after the cattle, wear a large, long coat, trimmed with fur and girded by the large Mongolian sash. The favorite color is green with pieces of red cloth sewn on the shoulders. The Kurluk women and girls wear the pointed hat of the Panags trimmed with fur. The unmarried girls arrange their hair in numerous small tresses that hang over their foreheads. The married women plait their hair in two long braids which are very often covered with black silk. These silk covers are ornamented by pieces of turquoise and coins and other small ornaments bought from Tibetans. The footgear is the same as for the men. Round the neck they wear coral necklaces and silver charm boxes which are bought at Kumbum. Brass army buttons from India with the British coat-of-arms are in great demand. Most of the men who went on pilgrimages to Lhasa or Shigatse have them.

The Mongols very seldom sing and the number of their songs is rather small. The chief occasions for singing are marriages and the New Year festivities. The themes are poor, as most of the Mongol songs are improvisations for the occasion. The songs are about the horse of the singer, his family, and cattle. More numerous are the religious songs of an edifying character, in which are sung the beauty of the monastery and the wise words of the baksha or spiritual teacher. There is one interesting complaint of a Mongol who went soldiering in a distant land. Historical ballads are very rarely heard. I succeeded in writing down portions of a ballad about Bogdo Gushi Khan, his youth and his conquest of Tibet. The ballad is purely descriptive and lacks action.

The results of our linguistic studies among the Kurluk Mongols are incorporated in a large dictionary of Ded-Mongol words and expressions and a number of Ded-Mongol songs and ballads. We hope to be able to publish this dictionary in the near future, accompanied by a phonetic study of the Ded-Mongol dialect and the text and translations of the songs. The dialect of the Kurluk Mongols is similar to that of the Khoshuts on the shores of the Baghrash Lake near Karashahr in Chinese Turkestan and has preserved many forms of the written Mongolian.

Such are the Kurluk Mongols as we saw them during our stay in Tsaidam in 1927. A turning point in their history is approaching, for the Tsaidam Mongols no longer look toward Lhasa, but upon the exiled Spiritual Ruler of Tsang, who lives at present among their countrymen of the north.